In the realm of education, understanding how learning progresses from simple to complex is crucial for designing effective curricula, assessments, and instructional strategies. Learning hierarchies provide a structured way to rank learning tasks based on their complexity, helping educators scaffold knowledge and skills in a logical sequence. While many are familiar with well-known taxonomies like Bloom’s, SOLO, and Gagné’s model, there are several other credible approaches in academic literature that offer unique perspectives on learning hierarchies. In this blog post, we’ll explore these frameworks and introduce additional models that contribute to our understanding of learning progression.
1. Bloom’s Taxonomy
Perhaps the most widely recognized learning hierarchy, Bloom’s Taxonomy, was developed by Benjamin Bloom in 1956. It categorizes learning objectives into six levels of complexity:
- Remembering: Recalling facts and basic concepts.
- Understanding: Explaining ideas or concepts.
- Applying: Using information in new situations.
- Analyzing: Drawing connections among ideas.
- Evaluating: Justifying a decision or course of action.
- Creating: Producing new or original work.
Bloom’s Taxonomy has been revised over the years, with the most notable update in 2001, which reordered the top two levels and renamed them to emphasize action (e.g., “Creating” instead of “Synthesis”).
2. SOLO Taxonomy
The Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) Taxonomy, developed by John Biggs and Kevin Collis, focuses on the quality of a student’s understanding rather than the type of task. It consists of five levels:
- Prestructural: The task is not understood.
- Unistructural: One relevant aspect is understood.
- Multistructural: Several aspects are understood, but not connected.
- Relational: Aspects are integrated into a coherent whole.
- Extended Abstract: The understanding is generalized to new domains.
SOLO is particularly useful for assessing depth of understanding and is often applied in higher education.
3. Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning
Robert Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning outlines eight types of learning, each building on the previous one:
- Signal Learning: Responding to a signal (Pavlovian conditioning).
- Stimulus-Response Learning: Precise responses to specific stimuli.
- Chaining: Linking multiple stimulus-response pairs.
- Verbal Association: Connecting words or concepts.
- Discrimination Learning: Differentiating between stimuli.
- Concept Learning: Identifying common features in stimuli.
- Rule Learning: Applying rules to solve problems.
- Problem-Solving: Combining rules to address novel situations.
Gagné’s model emphasizes the cumulative nature of learning, where each level prepares the learner for the next.
4. Web of Knowledge
The Web of Knowledge framework, developed by Marzano and Kendall, organizes learning into three systems and a knowledge domain:
- Self-System: Deciding whether to engage in a task.
- Metacognitive System: Setting goals and monitoring progress.
- Cognitive System: Processing information and solving problems.
- Knowledge Domain: The content being learned.
This model highlights the interplay between cognitive processes and the learner’s motivation and self-regulation.
5. Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
A revision of Bloom’s original taxonomy, this framework by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) introduces a two-dimensional model:
- Cognitive Processes: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, Create.
- Knowledge Dimensions: Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, Metacognitive.
This approach provides a more nuanced understanding of how different types of knowledge interact with cognitive processes.
6. Fink’s Taxonomy of Significant Learning
Developed by L. Dee Fink, this taxonomy focuses on creating meaningful and transformative learning experiences. It includes six interrelated categories:
- Foundational Knowledge: Understanding basic ideas.
- Application: Developing critical and creative thinking skills.
- Integration: Connecting ideas across disciplines.
- Human Dimension: Learning about oneself and others.
- Caring: Developing new feelings or interests.
- Learning How to Learn: Becoming a self-directed learner.
Fink’s model emphasizes the holistic nature of learning, going beyond cognitive skills to include emotional and social dimensions.
7. Hauenstein’s Conceptual Framework for Educational Objectives
Adam Hauenstein proposed a taxonomy that integrates cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. It includes five levels:
- Acquisition: Receiving and perceiving information.
- Assimilation: Responding and valuing information.
- Adaptation: Conceptualizing and organizing information.
- Performance: Applying and analyzing information.
- Aspiration: Valuing and creating with information.
This framework is particularly useful for designing interdisciplinary and experiential learning activities.
8. Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition
The Dreyfus Model, developed by Stuart and Hubert Dreyfus, describes how learners progress from novice to expert in a skill. The five stages are:
- Novice: Follows rules without context.
- Advanced Beginner: Uses situational cues.
- Competent: Plans and prioritizes tasks.
- Proficient: Sees the “big picture.”
- Expert: Intuitively understands and innovates.
This model is widely used in professional training and skill-based education.
9. Perry’s Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development
William Perry’s model focuses on the development of college students’ thinking. It includes nine positions grouped into four categories:
- Dualism: Viewing knowledge as right or wrong.
- Multiplicity: Recognizing multiple perspectives.
- Relativism: Understanding context and evidence.
- Commitment: Making informed choices.
Perry’s scheme is particularly relevant for understanding how learners develop critical thinking and ethical reasoning.
10. Ference Marton’s Phenomenography
Phenomenography studies the qualitatively different ways learners experience and understand phenomena. It identifies hierarchies of understanding based on learners’ conceptions, making it a valuable tool for exploring misconceptions and designing interventions.
Conclusion
Learning hierarchies are essential tools for educators, providing frameworks to structure learning experiences and assess progress. While Bloom’s Taxonomy, SOLO, and Gagné’s model are foundational, the additional approaches discussed here—such as Fink’s Taxonomy, the Dreyfus Model, and Perry’s Scheme—offer valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of learning. By integrating these models, educators can create more inclusive, effective, and transformative learning environments.